Martínez de Ibarreta, CarlosRuiz Rua, AuroraGijón Tascón, María CovadongaFernández Bonilla, Fernando2026-02-232026-02-232025-04-08Martínez de Ibarreta, C., Ruíz Rúa, A., Gijón, C., Fernádez, Bonilla, F. (2025). Banking digitalization in Spain: How branch closures and digital barriers reshape financial inclusion. Digital Business 5(1), 100119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.digbus.2025.100119.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.digbus.2025.100119https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14468/31893The registered version of this article, first published in “Digital Business 5(1) (2025), 100119", is available online at the publisher's website: Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.digbus.2025.100119La versión registrada de este artículo, publicado por primera vez en “Digital Business 5(1) (2025), 100119", está disponible en línea en el sitio web del editor: Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.digbus.2025.100119This paper examines the impact of banking digitalization in Spain, focusing on the consequences of branch closures and digital barriers for financial inclusion. Using panel data from the Survey on Equipment and Use of Information and Communication Technologies in Households (2017–2021), a logit model with random effects is estimated to analyse the determinants of e-banking adoption. The findings reveal that a lower density of bank branches per 1000 inhabitants significantly increases the propensity to use e-banking. However, digital financial inclusion remains uneven, with age, digital skills, gender, and geographic location playing critical roles in adoption patterns. While the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated e-banking uptake, structural inequalities persist, particularly among older adults and rural populations. Additionally, despite rising e-banking adoption, engagement with advanced digital financial services (e.g., stock trading, insurance, loans) remains limited, suggesting that digital financial literacy gaps continue to hinder full participation in digital banking. These findings highlight the need for targeted financial education programs, improved digital infrastructure, and hybrid banking models that ensure accessibility for vulnerable populations.eninfo:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess53 Ciencias EconómicasartículoAging populationBanking digitalizationDigital divideE-banking adoptionFinancial inclusionPanel data analysisRural banking2666-9544